D.C. Phillips, in International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences, 2001. Philosophical Reflections. Montesquieu's work is complex and covers varied disciplines and forms of discourse: literature, philosophy, aesthetic theory, political theory, and sociology. Sociologists of science have attacked this problem from the standpoint of ‘actor-networks’ (Latour 1987). Around the mid-twentieth century, the naive so-called ‘isms’ approach became popular, in which implications for education were deduced from broad philosophical positions such as realism. This threefold shift in orientation was pioneered by the groups which have become known as the French philosophes and the Scottish moral philosophers. Philosophical reflection upon education can be traced back to Plato's Meno and Republic; the work of many mainstream philosophers since has educational relevance, but specific reference to education has been sporadic. Key terms of Montesquieu's thought are ‘esprit général,’ ‘loix,’ and ‘modération,’ two of which appear in the subtitle of the work. Mirror image, a reflection in a mirror or in water; Signal reflection, in signal transmission; Elastic scattering, a process in nuclear and particle physics; Reflection nebula, a nebula that is extended and has no boundaries This ‘spirit’ or ‘common character’ results from the combined effect of various causes, including climate, religion, and commerce. 4. Progress and Historical Reflection in Philosophy. advanced knowledge or learning.”. For historians of science, this program proved stimulating in at least three respects. The final chapter (Livre XXIX) illustrates the pragmatic consequences of the consideration of material and social factors for the structure and development of two very different societies, using the examples of the laws of ancient Rome and medieval feudal society. Since Gödel’s incompleteness theorems one of the central topics in philosophy of mathematics is the question concerning the status of independent statements. Some knowledge of the transformation of cognitive moral judgment is therefore required if others are to be successfully stimulated to achieve a higher level, and it must also be recognized that human beings are perennially disinclined to take steps to transform and improve their patterns of behavior (to make progress). Others, such as Saint-Simon, couched their analysis of early industrial society in a medical idiom, advocating a ‘social physiology.’ Conservative social theorists such as Edmund Burke, Joseph de Maistre and Louis de Bonald, by contrast, while recognizing the reality of ‘social relations’ and ‘society,’ opposed the notion of a natural science of society, and rather sought inspiration in theology, philosophy, and history. While Montesquieu pioneered the study of what Auguste Comte later was to call ‘social statics,’ his younger contemporary, the future statesman Turgot, pointed to the possibility of also viewing human society from a developmental perspective, in other words, in terms of ‘social dynamics.’ That idea was further elaborated in theories of successive stages or phases by such writers as Condorcet and Henri de Saint-Simon. Arguably, these two concepts of selfhood remain within the frame of a debate in which the under- and the oversocialized views of the human being occupy the extreme points. This article discusses the most influential philosophical treatments of these issues, drawing on historical as well as contemporary accounts. Lüsebrink, in International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences, 2001. The study focused on the understanding of moral rules and moral motivation (cf. If we ask about moral progress in sociological terms, the most popular answer would be that: during the last few centuries, humans have become more morally rational. 1st Jan 1970 Philosophy Reference this Share this: Facebook Twitter Reddit LinkedIn WhatsApp 1. The shift consisted partly in conscious attempts to bridge the gap between theory and practice, between philosophical reflection and the collection of facts about social life. Although scientific practices may embrace everything from a knack for integrating equations to the deft adjustment of finicky instruments, studies of experiment have taken on an exemplary character in this branch of the field. The unity of the work also stems from the method adopted in order to understand the repetition—in Europe, and in France in particular—of the revolutionary process. In the context of a longitudinal study I asked 170 17-year-olds: ‘What would most make you a different person—different looks, parents, hobbies, grades, a different understanding of right and wrong; another nationality, sex; a lot of money? Indeed, one of the consequences of the studies of science in context has been to make the emergence, persistence, and occasional disappearance of such boundaries, topics of historical investigation in their own right. The shift consisted partly in conscious attempts to bridge the gap between theory and practice, between, Montesquieu, Charles, the Second Baron of (1689–1755), Roman history serves as illustrative material for his historical-. On the other hand, the observation of both multiple and changing basic orientations in human beings has led to the proliferation of the—infelicitously coined—term ‘postmodern identity’ as a new form of selfhood. By continuing you agree to the use of cookies. Locke’s classification of ideas…. The transition from the predisciplinary stage to the actual conception of sociology as an intellectual discipline in its own right occurred in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Oser, in International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences, 2001. Ring in the new year with a Britannica Membership - Now 30% off. Philosophy goes beyond facts, measurements, and scientific findings and it depends on judgment, reflection, and intuition. His understanding of history, for which the terms rise, greatness, and decadence appear central, is still confined in the pre-enlightenment cyclical theory, while the teleological understanding of progress characteristic of Voltaire's work for example bears no systematic significance in Montesquieu's conception of history and society. Section 3 draws several analogies between such social relations and first personal relations. On January 27, in a speech with a prophetic note, he announced the revolution which was to break out one month later. And yet we can list many names of people who may, arguably, be regarded as predecessors, ‘protosociologists’: people who reflected about social phenomena, collected data about social life, or tried to find patterns in human history. self-reflection definition: 1. the activity of thinking about your own feelings and behaviour, and the reasons that may lie…. Some groups, particularly in France, pursued the ideal of a social science modeled after the natural sciences. The material culture of science, ranging from the architecture of the spaces in which science is done (Rheinberger et al. Third, it encouraged a broader exploration of the grounds for scientific conviction by enforcing a ‘symmetric’ treatment of reasons for embracing false as well as true beliefs. All these things are of course important, but they will not lead to an accommodative transformation of cognitive moral patterns. The French political scientist and sociologist Raymond Aron interprets the contradictions and ambivalence of L'Esprit des Loix as a result of a profound transition period of European thought, at the center of which is Montesquieu's work, in his book Les Etapes de la Pensée Sociologique (1967), the first chapter of which is on Montesquieu. The extraordinary variety of beliefs and practices that is possible within and across human societies has been a rich source of philosophical reflection; this article focuses on philosophical accounts of specifically ethical diversity and disagreement. My philosophy of education Introduction In this paper I am going to write about my philosophy of education which reflects my own vision and it is slightly inspired by educational philosophies and schools of thoughts which I relate to the most. Be on the lookout for your Britannica newsletter to get trusted stories delivered right to your inbox. Tocqueville's work—which comprises the two great texts of 1835/40 and 1856, the Recollections, various papers, speeches, and reports, as well as a vast correspondence—draws its unity from the constant questioning which inspired it: why since 1789, in 1830, and then in 1848, was it always the same revolution which starts up again? Workshop: Reflection in Philosophy and Mathematics (29 June 2019) Idea & Motivation. Or, in simpler terms, reading Les Misérables from Victor Hugo would be more effective than rationally solving moral problems. This trip (April 1831 –February 1832), undertaken with his friend Gustave de Beaumont, resulted first in a report entitled Du Système pénitentiaire aux Etats-Unis et de son application en France (On the penitentiary system in the United States and its application in France) (1833), then the first two volumes of De la Démocratie en Amérique (Democracy in America) (1835), and finally what is known as the Second Démocratie (Second Democracy) (1840). Philosophy is a reflective activity that invites students to make explicit their fundamental assumptions and beliefs. The relationship of tension between normativity and analysis that is present throughout Montesquieu's L'Esprit des Loix points to fundamental contradictions and ambivalence of his work: (a) first the contradiction between a rational universalism on one hand, which is characteristic of the political philosophy of the Enlightenment and regards liberty, the separation of powers and the bicameral system as ‘fundamental laws’ (‘loix fondamentales’), and a historical sense of the particular and specific on the other hand, which, according to the German historian Friedrich Meinecke, foreshadows the historicism of the nineteenth century; (b) second this calls attention to the contradiction between sociological and moral approaches, which can be seen for example in the analysis and judgment of the phenomenon of slavery. 2 (2001): 93–106. In order to drive their point, Jay and Ryan appropriated Gabriel Marcel’s notion of philosophical reflection, which is deeply personal and is intimately anchored on day-to-day existence. It is mapping out our way towards meaningful and significant existence. For historians of scientific practice, in contrast, further explanation is required to show the ways in which localized achievements can be made at least partially communicable among practitioners divided by geography, history, or culture (Schaffer 1992, Galison 1999). Moreover, this cannot stop me from achieving my desire to practice my chosen profession. After the February Days, he was witness to the clashes of June 23 to 26, 1848 which put ‘the haves’ at odds with the ‘have-nots.’ His Souvenirs (Recollections) (1951–, Vol. Tocqueville's liking for philosophical reflection did not cancel out his sense of political action. Elected to the Chamber of Deputies in 1839, and reelected several times in his Valognes constituency, he committed himself resolutely to the parliamentary path on the side of the constitutional opposition. ScienceDirect ® is a registered trademark of Elsevier B.V. ScienceDirect ® is a registered trademark of Elsevier B.V. URL: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080430767023627, URL: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080430767009918, URL: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080430767010780, URL: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080430767010524, URL: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080430767023895, URL: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080430767001467, URL: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080430767003442, URL: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080430767000929, URL: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080430767026474, URL: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080430767003053, Educational Philosophy: Historical Perspectives, International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences, There are empirical findings that agree with these, If we ask about moral progress in sociological terms, the most popular answer would be that: during the last few centuries, humans have become more morally rational. One of the most important of the new strands of contextual history of science, because of its potentially wide application, has been the investigation of how ideas and practices of gender have shaped the modern sciences (e.g., Haraway 1989, Jordanova 1989, Schiebinger 1993). On the one hand, the notion of a ‘decentering of the subject’ has been proposed mainly from poststructuralist discussions. It aims to clarify our human understanding of anything, including ourselves. Such notions rather underline the nonidentitarian character of being by pointing to the issue of ‘the other in me’ (Emmanuel Lévinas) as a question of co-constitution rather than of interaction. Only in truly caring for something can a person feel inexchangeable. As noted above, however, this mode of upholding identity is rendered increasingly difficult given rapid and far-reaching changes in knowledge systems and collective interpretation. If we apply this idea to the educational and developmental field it could mean that moral educational progress also develops through the development of moral feelings; through story telling and possibilities to put oneself in the shoes of others. Among the philosophes, Montesquieu was one of the first and most influential. To consider states as the result of an original voluntary act of agreement was illusory and contrary to scientific procedure. In the earlier historiography, science had been assumed to be universal because nature was so. Socrates developed this philosophy when he himself was facing some challenges as he was facing trial for corrupting young people and undermining the state religion. Although it would be difficult to imagine that my basic teaching philosophy has changed substantially over the relatively short time period of 16 weeks, I would have to admit that the texts by hooks and Shor helped me reexamine how I have conducted classes in the past. The development of despotic regimes since Caesar and Augustus is seen as a fundamental cause of the fall of Roman civilization. There are two related ways in which philosophical reflection on the self may usefully be brought to bear in social science. Knowledge of equal complexity but different in nature is required for the task of creating shared norms, or when a competency to act is aimed for (see later). In this brief survey, we shall be able to pursue only the Western line leading up to the emergence of sociology as an intellectual discipline in Western Europe and North America in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. All of these elements were absent from the field of sociology prior to the nineteenth century. Kuhn argued for a plurality of scientific revolutions, in addition to the Scientific Revolution, which alternate with periods of ‘normal science’ framed by a ‘paradigm’ that models what can count as an acceptable problem, method, and solution in a given science in a specified period. Here Montesquieu explains that his book is about ‘the connection that the laws must have to the constitution of every government, to the morals, the climate, the religion, the commerce, etc.’ The basic term ‘loix’ therefore refers both to state laws and to natural structural laws which are derived from the analysis of complex empirical sets of facts (such as climate, soil, religion, etc.) The success of the first part of this work was enough to establish his reputation; in 1838 he was elected to the Academy of Moral and Political Sciences and, three years later, he entered the Académie française. It will be shown that these accounts have often shaped and, in turn, been shaped by related work in the social sciences, and that as a consequence they have frequently given rise to similar methodological worries. Interactions among historians (e.g., Shapin and Schaffer 1985, Galison 1987, Gooding et al. Although they have been ‘appropriated’ as founding fathers by the practitioners of the established academic disciplines of philosophy and history, many of the problems they addressed lay in the area of what was later to become sociology. Their work was developed in different directions during the last decades of the eighteenth and the first decades of the nineteenth century. It is a search for meaningful existence. When noted philosophers have turned directly to education their work often has not been philosophical, but rather cultured reflection. 51-68 (2018) ... on the one hand, veritic progress in philosophy is more significant than many current philosophers believe, but that, on the other hand, it also has severe limitations. Home — Essay Samples — Philosophy — Self Reflection — Reflection on My Personal Philosophy and Mission Statement This essay has been submitted by a student. Individuals and governments alike should promote the amount of happiness and reduce the amount of pain. Regarding the former, Hume said little more than that sensation “arises in the soul originally from unknown causes.” Impressions of reflection arise from a complicated series of mental operations. By signing up for this email, you are agreeing to news, offers, and information from Encyclopaedia Britannica. As noted at the start of this section, reflection is a universalproperty of matter, the mutual interaction of every particle inthe Universe with every, which other could be said to constitutethe "materiality" of the world. His political philosophy, despite his analytical distance, highly values those societies that seek a balance between the various interests of power and societal groups, and are able to create a structural equilibrium (‘équilibre’). Both the ideas of a ‘decentring’ and of a ‘postmodern self’ question some major implications of the more standard sociological view of selfhood, namely the existence of the human self as a unit and its persistence as the ‘same’ self over time. The three forms of governmental structure correspond to dominant values and mental reaction patterns, which influence both the behavior of the rulers and the thinking of the people: in the republic ‘virtue’ (‘vertu’), in the monarchy ‘honor’ (‘honneur’) and in despotism ‘fear’ (‘crainte’). All of these lines of thought were further cultivated in the history, philosophy, and sociology of science (the three disciplines were drawn into intensive interaction in part through their differentiated reception of Kuhn's book) during the subsequent three decades, often with consequences that led in directions diverging markedly from those plotted in The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. Since the mid-1970s, in contrast, theoretical and empirical developments have tended to break up the existing two-dimensional mode of conceptualization. The rise of philosophy of education as a distinct specialization is a product of the twentieth century, and most practitioners are located in colleges of education; while their work draws upon the main branches of philosophy, it also reflects the influence of major cultural and educational trends. From a historical-sociological point of view Montesquieu explains slavery using a set of economic, demographic, and climatic factors based on the analysis of overseas plantation societies; from a moral viewpoint however, he condemns slavery as a manifestation of a despotic form of government and society. Why?’ The answers given most often were: different parents, different sex, different moral understanding. What we learn is class about philosophy defiantly makes me think and makes my brain turn all the time, but so far, my understanding is that philosophy is the study of knowledge. In Philosophy and the Historical Perspective. Some individual contributors to these traditions have gained great renown in their own cultures. Henry Flynt. In both cases, a strong concept of self has been abandoned, in the one case on the basis of philosophical reflection, in the other, grounded on empirical observation. In the beginning, I took this class because I thought it would be pretty easy. Thomas Grundmann. Sociologists of science Barry Barnes and David Bloor took these claims as the basis of an approach called ‘constructivism’ (Golinski 1998), in which the development of scientific knowledge was to be explained without appeal to its truth or falsehood, on the grounds that the truth of a proposition is neither a necessary nor sufficient condition for its acceptance (Bloor [1976] 1991). Similarly, Helen John, a leading pioneer in protests against nuclear missiles, came to feel irreplaceable once she began to accept personal responsibility. Hands-on experience with objects is no longer understood as a means to a greater end, but as a force that shapes the culture and penetrates into the metaphysics of science (Galison 1997). 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